Graft structures based on tissue engineering can be categorized into non-scaffold-based and scaffold-based grafts. Figure 17 depicts the workflow for preparing tissue-engineering-based (scaffold- and non-scaffold-based) grafts by diffusing endothelial cells into the graft using decellularized natural-matrix technique. First, tissues are obtained from patients, and the cells are processed by following the isolation and expansion protocols illustrated in Figs. 17a and 17b. Then, the cells are further diffused into scaffold-based or non-scaffold-based grafts, as depicted in Fig. 17c. The simplest method involves electrospinning a porous graft that is subsequently combined with the cells. In another strategy, porous grafts can be prepared by freeze drying [144,145,146], followed by cell diffusion. In addition, non-scaffold-based grafts can be prepared using the decellularized natural matrix technique. In this approach, the cells are mixed with a gel, which is further mould-cast to form a vessel-like shape. Similarly, there exist decellularized grafts, in which vascular or non-vascular tissues are decellularized with nucleases, thermolysin, or phospholipase enzymes and detergents, such as octylglucoside, or sodium-based chemicals, such as sodium dodecyl sulphate or sodium deoxycholate by using combinations of mechanical and physical methods followed by cell diffusion. Once the cells are diffused, dynamic maturation (Fig. 17d) is performed before implantation (Fig. 17e). The scaffold- and non-scaffold-based methods are detailed in the following subsections.
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